Breaking the mould Third Culture Kids in International Schools in Denmark: Transnational Upbringing and the Expression and Perception of Emotions

Lidia Bernal*

*Corresponding author for this work

Research output: ThesisPh.D. thesis

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Abstract

The exponential growth of English-medium international schools in the 21st century reflects a major shift in the educational landscape, evolving from a peripheral position to one of significant influence (Bunnell, 2020). In mid-2014, the number of these institutions was estimated at 9.615, and by mid-2024, this figure had escalated to 14.457, representing a 50% increase (International Schools Consultancy Research, 2024). Despite the growing demand, research on international schools remains limited. According to existing knowledge, this dissertation is the first to focus on international schools in Denmark. To address this research gap, this anthology of three articles focused on traditional Third Culture Kids (TCKs), an understudied multilingual population prevalent in these schools, typically raised in multilingual, nomadic households, and extensively socialised in English through international school attendance and expatriate community interaction. Previous TCK research has primarily focused on adult TCK populations, emphasising the challenges of their nomadic lifestyle (e.g., psychological and identity-acculturation dimensions) from a deficit-oriented perspective. This thesis redressed this imbalance by adopting a strength-based approach (Damon, 2004), shifting the focus to cover the understudied linguistic dimension of TCKs.
Given the expansion of international schools, the general lack of research, and the limited focus on the linguistic aspects of TCKs, this PhD project investigated how TCKs use their linguistic resources in the perception and expression of emotions. This emotion-linguistic approach offered a novel perspective on TCKs, shifting from their bi-multilingual brains to their bi-multilingual lives (Wierzbicka, 2004, p.103). Research on multilingualism and emotion has primarily focused on adults, revealing that L1 is commonly experienced and perceived as emotionally stronger than subsequently acquired languages (LX[s]). However, the subjective nature of emotions and the inherent variability in how different languages encode and represent emotion concepts complicate this pattern, making the study of multilingualism and emotion particularly complex.
To investigate how TCKs use their linguistic resources in the perception and expression of emotions, three emotional contexts were studied in three articles. Article 1 examined anger expression and the perceived emotional force of swearwords and taboo words (S-T words); Article 2 investigated code-switching (CS) use based on the interlocutor and topic emotionality, and Article 3 assessed the perceived emotional force of the phrase I love you. These contexts were analysed through three main clusters reflecting TCKs’ distinctive characteristics: sociobiographical (inherent traits such as their nomadic lifestyle), language profile (aspects contributing to the acquisition and use of their linguistic repertoire, such as being educated in English), and sociolinguistic (social and cultural influences shaping language use, such as the network of interlocutors).

This PhD project addressed the following research questions (RQs):

RQ1. What role do sociobiographical, language profile, and sociolinguistic factors play in the expression and perception of emotions in TCKs? Namely:
1a. How do the above-mentioned factors influence the expression of anger and the perceived emotional force of S-T words in TCKs? (Article 1)
1b. How do the above-mentioned factors influence code-switching (CS) patterns according to the interlocutor and topic emotionality in TCKs? (Article 2)
1c. How do the above-mentioned factors influence the perceived emotional force of the phrase I love you in TCKs? (Article 3)
RQ2. Are there common patterns in TCKs’ expression of anger and love, as well as in their emotion-related CS behaviour? (addressed in Articles 1, 2 and 3)
RQ3. Are there common patterns in TCKs’ perceived emotional force of S-T words and the phrase I love you? (addressed in Articles 1 and 3)

This dissertation employed an explanatory sequential mixed-methods approach, combining quantitative data from an adaptive online version of the Bilingualism and Emotions Questionnaire (Dewaele & Pavlenko, 2001-2003) with qualitative insights from participants’ open-ended questionnaire responses (Article 3) and semi-structured interviews (Articles 2 and 3). The questionnaire was administered to International Baccalaureate Diploma Programme students (aged 15-19) at three international schools in Denmark. Recruitment followed strict sociobiographical exclusion criteria to align with the traditional TCK profile (Pollock et al., 2017), and linguistic criteria to ensure bi-multilingualism. Samples for Articles 1 (N = 61) and 2 (N = 188) were collected from the same school (School 1) across different academic years (2020-2022), with the N = 61 subset included in the N = 188 total. Article 3 (N = 276) combined data from School 1 and two additional international schools collected during the 2022-2023 academic year. Qualitative data included a subset of the quantitative samples collected from each school, selected based on sociolinguistic factors, particularly Family Language Policies (FLPs). Fourteen of the 27 interviews were used across the three articles. TCKs’ sociobiographical characteristics were consistent across the three schools (e.g., age of first move, years spent enrolled in international school). The linguistic characteristics showed that most participants were LX English users (L2) (Article 1, 41%; Article 2, 48.1%, and Article 3, 68.8%), with various self-reported dominant language(s) (Article 1, L1: 39.3%; Article 2, L1+LX: 46.3%; and Article 3, L1: 45.7%). Questionnaire data were analysed using statistical methods ranging from group comparisons and correlations (Article 1) to multiple linear regression models (Article 2) and multinomial logistic regression models (Article 3), each tailored to address the specific RQs. The interview data were transcribed verbatim and relevant passages were used to complement and enrich the quantitative findings.
The results indicated that sociobiographical factors significantly influenced both language and sociolinguistic factors, which subsequently impacted TCKs’ linguistic-emotional behaviour. Generally, TCKs exhibited a distinct multilingual behaviour when expressing and perceiving emotions. In the expression of anger, love, and emotion-related CS behaviour, TCKs favoured LX English, unlike other studies where L1 was preferred to express anger, love, and emotion-related CS behaviour, where switching from LX to L1 was the most common pattern. Conversely, the emotional perception was moderated by the type of emotion word. There was no clear language preference in the perceived emotional force of S-T words (Article 1), but the phrase I love you yielded a combination of L1+LX English (Article 3), differing from previous studies that showed a heightened perceived emotional force of L1. Regarding the additional languages acquired (L3, L4, and L5), only L3 seemed to elicit emotional significance in the expression and the perceived emotional weight of S-T words (Article 1), although this should be cautiously interpreted due to the small sample size. Overall, the findings shifted the focus from the L1 and the home—traditionally primary sources of emotional input (Pavlenko, 2005; Harris et al., 2006) —to include the LX (English), the expatriate community, and international schools as additional sources of affective socialisation and potential acculturation. Moreover, the results corroborated that the intensity and frequency of LX English use are crucial factors in increasing LX embodiment in these TCKs (Dewaele et al., 2023). The findings also revealed that TCKs’ multilingualism is complex, as they experience both the benefits of multilingualism and challenges associated with perceived underperformance in their L1, leading to a sense of not fully fitting into any specific linguistic mould.
This dissertation not only enhances the understanding of the TCK individual but also advances the knowledge of multilingualism and emotions by offering new insights through the perspective of a transient population in the context of Denmark.



Translated title of the contributionBreaking the mould Third Culture Kids in International Schools in Denmark: Transnational Upbringing and the Expression and Perception of Emotions
Original languageEnglish
Awarding Institution
  • University of Southern Denmark
Supervisors/Advisors
  • Cadierno, Teresa, Principal supervisor
  • Doquin de Saint-Preux, Anna, Co-supervisor, External person
Date of defence27. Nov 2024
Publisher
DOIs
Publication statusPublished - 21. Oct 2024

Note re. dissertation

Print copy of the full thesis is restricted to reference use in the library.

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