TY - GEN
T1 - TNF signaling properties in acute and chronic inflammatory conditions
AU - Pedersen, Estrid Thougaard
PY - 2023/12/14
Y1 - 2023/12/14
N2 - Ischemic stroke, where occlusion of a blood vessel in the brain leads to cell death and neuroinflammation in the affected area, is one of the leading causes of death worldwide. Treatment options are mainly focused on establishing reperfusion and preventing recurring stroke, as well as promoting rehabilitation in survivors. In the ischemic area, rapid death of neurons and oligodendrocytes cause microglia and astrocytes to become activated, and promote the infiltration of peripheral immune cells, all participating in the neuroinflammatory response. This response can cause both protective effects in mediating repair and survival, but also detrimental effects furthering tissue damage. Additionally, inflammation can persist in the brain chronically and mediate secondary neurodegeneration and cause long-term impairments in cognitive functions. A key player in neuroinflammation is the cytokine tumor necrosis factor (TNF), which exists in both a soluble form (solTNF) and a transmembrane form (tmTNF). Signaling by tmTNF/solTNF through TNF receptor 1 (TNFR1) can promote cellular survival, but also cause the production of inflammatory mediators, as well as lead to apoptosis and necroptosis. TNFR2 is only fully activated by tmTNF, and this promotes cellular survival and inflammatory signaling. Selective therapies aimed at promoting protective tmTNF-TNFR2 signaling while inhibiting detrimental solTNF-TNFR1 signaling are therefore being investigated as potential treatments for neuroinflammatory diseases. Inhibiting solTNF has been found to be protective in multiple disease models of both acute and chronic neurological disease, and while it has been shown to be beneficial the acute and sub-acute phase of experimental ischemic stroke, the long-term effects have not yet been investigated. The aim of the first study in this thesis was therefore to investigate how inhibiting solTNF with systemic injections of XPro1595 affected the more long-term outcomes in mice subjected to permanent middle cerebral artery occlusion (pMCAO). We found that the XPro1595-treated mice displayed decreased numbers of peripheral immune cells, as well as decreased numbers of astrocytes and oligodendrocytes in the ipsilateral cortex, compared to mice treated with saline. Additionally, XPro1595 treatment altered microglial morphology, suggestive of a more activated phenotype, and improved myelin integrity, leading to improvements in functional outcome. This suggests a long-term protective effect of inhibiting solTNF in ischemic stroke. Promoting protective TNFR2 signaling with an agonist is protective in models of chronic neurological disease, such as Alzheimer’s and multiple sclerosis. However, to our knowledge, no studies have investigated the effect of using a TNFR2 agonist in stroke. In the second study of this thesis, we therefore set out to investigate the effect of systemic injections with the TNFR2 agonist NewSTAR2 on the outcome of experimental ischemic stroke in mice. NewSTAR2-treated mice displayed changes in peripheral immune cell numbers and a transient improvement in functional outcome, compared to isotype control-treated mice. Additionally, they had a transient increase in TNF protein expression and transient changes in microglial numbers. However, the treatment was not able to cause any longterm beneficial effects, indicating that activating TNFR2 in experimental stroke is insufficient in counteracting the strong neuroinflammatory response. Chronic neurological diseases, such as multiple sclerosis, are also characterized by an extensive neuroinflammatory response. Although multiple sclerosisis believed to be driven by activated T-cells, the inflammatory environment leads to the activation of microglia and infiltration of myeloid cells, as in ischemic stroke. Characteristically for microglia and infiltrating myeloid cells in inflammatory conditions, are their similar function, as well as seemingly dual role, both mediating phagocytosis of myelin and cell debris and promoting remyelination, but also secreting inflammatory mediators and promoting inflammation and cell death. The third study aimed to investigate differences in how myeloid cells derived from acute and chronic neuroinflammatory conditions affected naïve microglia using an in vitro assay. Myeloid cells were isolated from the acute and chronic phase of the pMCAO model of ischemic stroke and the experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) model of multiple sclerosis, and plated on top of the microglia directly, or in cell culture inserts, thereby allowing only indirect contact. We found that the myeloid cells from pMCAO and EAE mice regulated microglial gene expression and morphology differently. Myeloid cells from acute EAE led to the biggest changes in microglial morphology and gene expression, while myeloid cells from chronic pMCAO led to the biggest changes in microglial gene expression, not followed by a change in morphology. Additionally, most of the changes were dependent on the cells being in direct contact. This highlights key differences between acute and chronic neurological disease, as well as betweenthe different phases of these diseases, which might explain some of the dichotomy in the function of microglia and infiltrating myeloid cells.Taken together, the work in this thesis highlights the potential of targeting the TNF signaling system in the long-term outcome of ischemic stroke. Thus, inhibiting solTNF is protective in chronic experimental ischemic stroke, while activating TNFR2 in stroke conditions is insufficient. Additionally, the thesis highlights key differences between acute and chronic neuroinflammatory conditions, illustrating the importance of considering disease type as well as timing, when developing new treatments.
AB - Ischemic stroke, where occlusion of a blood vessel in the brain leads to cell death and neuroinflammation in the affected area, is one of the leading causes of death worldwide. Treatment options are mainly focused on establishing reperfusion and preventing recurring stroke, as well as promoting rehabilitation in survivors. In the ischemic area, rapid death of neurons and oligodendrocytes cause microglia and astrocytes to become activated, and promote the infiltration of peripheral immune cells, all participating in the neuroinflammatory response. This response can cause both protective effects in mediating repair and survival, but also detrimental effects furthering tissue damage. Additionally, inflammation can persist in the brain chronically and mediate secondary neurodegeneration and cause long-term impairments in cognitive functions. A key player in neuroinflammation is the cytokine tumor necrosis factor (TNF), which exists in both a soluble form (solTNF) and a transmembrane form (tmTNF). Signaling by tmTNF/solTNF through TNF receptor 1 (TNFR1) can promote cellular survival, but also cause the production of inflammatory mediators, as well as lead to apoptosis and necroptosis. TNFR2 is only fully activated by tmTNF, and this promotes cellular survival and inflammatory signaling. Selective therapies aimed at promoting protective tmTNF-TNFR2 signaling while inhibiting detrimental solTNF-TNFR1 signaling are therefore being investigated as potential treatments for neuroinflammatory diseases. Inhibiting solTNF has been found to be protective in multiple disease models of both acute and chronic neurological disease, and while it has been shown to be beneficial the acute and sub-acute phase of experimental ischemic stroke, the long-term effects have not yet been investigated. The aim of the first study in this thesis was therefore to investigate how inhibiting solTNF with systemic injections of XPro1595 affected the more long-term outcomes in mice subjected to permanent middle cerebral artery occlusion (pMCAO). We found that the XPro1595-treated mice displayed decreased numbers of peripheral immune cells, as well as decreased numbers of astrocytes and oligodendrocytes in the ipsilateral cortex, compared to mice treated with saline. Additionally, XPro1595 treatment altered microglial morphology, suggestive of a more activated phenotype, and improved myelin integrity, leading to improvements in functional outcome. This suggests a long-term protective effect of inhibiting solTNF in ischemic stroke. Promoting protective TNFR2 signaling with an agonist is protective in models of chronic neurological disease, such as Alzheimer’s and multiple sclerosis. However, to our knowledge, no studies have investigated the effect of using a TNFR2 agonist in stroke. In the second study of this thesis, we therefore set out to investigate the effect of systemic injections with the TNFR2 agonist NewSTAR2 on the outcome of experimental ischemic stroke in mice. NewSTAR2-treated mice displayed changes in peripheral immune cell numbers and a transient improvement in functional outcome, compared to isotype control-treated mice. Additionally, they had a transient increase in TNF protein expression and transient changes in microglial numbers. However, the treatment was not able to cause any longterm beneficial effects, indicating that activating TNFR2 in experimental stroke is insufficient in counteracting the strong neuroinflammatory response. Chronic neurological diseases, such as multiple sclerosis, are also characterized by an extensive neuroinflammatory response. Although multiple sclerosisis believed to be driven by activated T-cells, the inflammatory environment leads to the activation of microglia and infiltration of myeloid cells, as in ischemic stroke. Characteristically for microglia and infiltrating myeloid cells in inflammatory conditions, are their similar function, as well as seemingly dual role, both mediating phagocytosis of myelin and cell debris and promoting remyelination, but also secreting inflammatory mediators and promoting inflammation and cell death. The third study aimed to investigate differences in how myeloid cells derived from acute and chronic neuroinflammatory conditions affected naïve microglia using an in vitro assay. Myeloid cells were isolated from the acute and chronic phase of the pMCAO model of ischemic stroke and the experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) model of multiple sclerosis, and plated on top of the microglia directly, or in cell culture inserts, thereby allowing only indirect contact. We found that the myeloid cells from pMCAO and EAE mice regulated microglial gene expression and morphology differently. Myeloid cells from acute EAE led to the biggest changes in microglial morphology and gene expression, while myeloid cells from chronic pMCAO led to the biggest changes in microglial gene expression, not followed by a change in morphology. Additionally, most of the changes were dependent on the cells being in direct contact. This highlights key differences between acute and chronic neurological disease, as well as betweenthe different phases of these diseases, which might explain some of the dichotomy in the function of microglia and infiltrating myeloid cells.Taken together, the work in this thesis highlights the potential of targeting the TNF signaling system in the long-term outcome of ischemic stroke. Thus, inhibiting solTNF is protective in chronic experimental ischemic stroke, while activating TNFR2 in stroke conditions is insufficient. Additionally, the thesis highlights key differences between acute and chronic neuroinflammatory conditions, illustrating the importance of considering disease type as well as timing, when developing new treatments.
U2 - 10.21996/hybb-m917
DO - 10.21996/hybb-m917
M3 - Ph.D. thesis
PB - Syddansk Universitet. Det Sundhedsvidenskabelige Fakultet
ER -