TY - GEN
T1 - Physiological consequences of different interventions with the potential of weight loss
AU - Kolnes, Kristoffer Jensen
PY - 2025/2/13
Y1 - 2025/2/13
N2 - The profound global health challenge of obesity, and its close association with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2D), calls for action in
preventing and treating both conditions. This PhD thesis discusses
several aspects of physiological and metabolic factors known to
play a role in obesity and the development of T2D. It consists of
three interventions with the potential for weight loss exploring
different effects on physiological and metabolic outcomes. This
thesis aimed to contribute to the understanding of interventions
with the potential for weight loss for future clinicians to improve
the management and preventing of obesity.Study I investigate the effect of a seven-day water-only fast in
free-living conditions, in 13 physically active and healthy participants (females n=6, males n=7). After fasting, participants lost
around 4.6 kg lean mass and 1.4 kg fat. Surprisingly, their muscle
strength remained the same, but their VO2max dropped by 13%.
Muscle biopsies revealed no changes in the five mitochondrial
complexes or AMPK. Carbohydrate oxidation decreased whereas
fat oxidation increased, both at rest and during physical activity.
The expression of PDK4 increased 13-fold, observed with an increased inhibitory phosphorylation of PHD in muscle cells. These
molecular changes probably play an important role in the metabolic switch towards lipid oxidation during prolonged fasting, but
may also contribute to reduction in VO2max. We assessed insulin
sensitivity with OGTT, which showed reduced insulin sensitivity after fasting, with both up, and downregulations of muscle proteins
involved in glucose metabolism. Taken together, prolonged fasting is effective in inducing weight loss. Although the relative loss
of fat and lean mass was equal, the absolute loss of lean mass was
larger than the loss of fat mass in values. These effects on body
composition were seen together with increased insulin resistance and lower VO2max, which under most conditions are predictors for
metabolic health. Study II included 34 healthy participants in a cross-over trial to investigate the effects of metformin on the stress-induced cytokines
GDF15 and FGF21, and its relationship with glucose metabolism.
The trial lasted seven days, with participants treated with either
placebo or metformin, followed by a 36-hour fasting period to assess glucose metabolism. Metformin in humans led to 1.7-fold
higher serum GDF15 levels without affecting serum FGF21. We expected that if metformin increased release of GDF15 from the
liver, FGF21 would also increase. Metformin caused an increase in
glucose utilization due to increased glycolysis, and this was counteracted by increased endogenous glucose production, contrary
to its expected mode of action in liver. The change in serum GDF15
did not correlate with plasma metformin levels. We compared our
in vivo results with in vitro studies on human intestinal cells, showing that metformin increased the gene expression and secretion
of GDF15 without affecting FGF21 in vitro. Collectively our results
support recent evidence that the intestine is an important site of
metformin action.Study III investigated the effect of bariatric surgery in participants
with severe obesity, with (n=13) and without T2D (n=15), both before and after surgery, and compared them to lean individuals
with normal glucose tolerance and BMI (n=15). After surgery, 9
with and 12 without T2D completed the follow up. We assessed
body composition and various metabolic parameters before and
after bariatric surgery. The participants reduced their body weight
by 22% after surgery, mainly driven by reduced fat mass (75% of the lost weight). Weight remains elevated in both groups after surgery compared to the healthy controls. Insulin sensitivity markedly improved after surgery in both groups, assessed with clamp
studies. Insulin-stimulated glucose infusion rate and insulin’s ability to suppress free fatty acid increased after surgery, indicating
that insulin resistance in both muscle and adipose tissue were
ameliorated. Additionally, beta cell function was restored regardless of diabetes status. Although bariatric surgery improved blood
pressure and dyslipidemia on top of discontinuation of medication
for these conditions, these improvements were small. The surgery
improved relative VO2max, but remained impaired compared to
controls. In summary, bariatric surgery is an effective way to reduced weight, especially fat mass. The weight loss was accompanied by improvements in insulin sensitivity and beta-cell function. In conclusion, complete prolonged fasting leads to a rapid weight
loss, relatively affecting lean and fat mass similarly, while bariatric
surgery, leading to reduced calorie intake over months, results in
predominantly fat loss. Metformin induces the anorexogenic
stress-induced cytokine GDF15 and lowers glucose by increasing
glycolysis most likely in the intestine. While prolonged fasting reduces insulin sensitivity and glucose tolerance, metformin and
bariatric surgery improves it. These three studies show that different forms of interventions with the potential for weight loss have
varying effects on metabolic mechanisms involved in obesity and
T2D.
AB - The profound global health challenge of obesity, and its close association with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2D), calls for action in
preventing and treating both conditions. This PhD thesis discusses
several aspects of physiological and metabolic factors known to
play a role in obesity and the development of T2D. It consists of
three interventions with the potential for weight loss exploring
different effects on physiological and metabolic outcomes. This
thesis aimed to contribute to the understanding of interventions
with the potential for weight loss for future clinicians to improve
the management and preventing of obesity.Study I investigate the effect of a seven-day water-only fast in
free-living conditions, in 13 physically active and healthy participants (females n=6, males n=7). After fasting, participants lost
around 4.6 kg lean mass and 1.4 kg fat. Surprisingly, their muscle
strength remained the same, but their VO2max dropped by 13%.
Muscle biopsies revealed no changes in the five mitochondrial
complexes or AMPK. Carbohydrate oxidation decreased whereas
fat oxidation increased, both at rest and during physical activity.
The expression of PDK4 increased 13-fold, observed with an increased inhibitory phosphorylation of PHD in muscle cells. These
molecular changes probably play an important role in the metabolic switch towards lipid oxidation during prolonged fasting, but
may also contribute to reduction in VO2max. We assessed insulin
sensitivity with OGTT, which showed reduced insulin sensitivity after fasting, with both up, and downregulations of muscle proteins
involved in glucose metabolism. Taken together, prolonged fasting is effective in inducing weight loss. Although the relative loss
of fat and lean mass was equal, the absolute loss of lean mass was
larger than the loss of fat mass in values. These effects on body
composition were seen together with increased insulin resistance and lower VO2max, which under most conditions are predictors for
metabolic health. Study II included 34 healthy participants in a cross-over trial to investigate the effects of metformin on the stress-induced cytokines
GDF15 and FGF21, and its relationship with glucose metabolism.
The trial lasted seven days, with participants treated with either
placebo or metformin, followed by a 36-hour fasting period to assess glucose metabolism. Metformin in humans led to 1.7-fold
higher serum GDF15 levels without affecting serum FGF21. We expected that if metformin increased release of GDF15 from the
liver, FGF21 would also increase. Metformin caused an increase in
glucose utilization due to increased glycolysis, and this was counteracted by increased endogenous glucose production, contrary
to its expected mode of action in liver. The change in serum GDF15
did not correlate with plasma metformin levels. We compared our
in vivo results with in vitro studies on human intestinal cells, showing that metformin increased the gene expression and secretion
of GDF15 without affecting FGF21 in vitro. Collectively our results
support recent evidence that the intestine is an important site of
metformin action.Study III investigated the effect of bariatric surgery in participants
with severe obesity, with (n=13) and without T2D (n=15), both before and after surgery, and compared them to lean individuals
with normal glucose tolerance and BMI (n=15). After surgery, 9
with and 12 without T2D completed the follow up. We assessed
body composition and various metabolic parameters before and
after bariatric surgery. The participants reduced their body weight
by 22% after surgery, mainly driven by reduced fat mass (75% of the lost weight). Weight remains elevated in both groups after surgery compared to the healthy controls. Insulin sensitivity markedly improved after surgery in both groups, assessed with clamp
studies. Insulin-stimulated glucose infusion rate and insulin’s ability to suppress free fatty acid increased after surgery, indicating
that insulin resistance in both muscle and adipose tissue were
ameliorated. Additionally, beta cell function was restored regardless of diabetes status. Although bariatric surgery improved blood
pressure and dyslipidemia on top of discontinuation of medication
for these conditions, these improvements were small. The surgery
improved relative VO2max, but remained impaired compared to
controls. In summary, bariatric surgery is an effective way to reduced weight, especially fat mass. The weight loss was accompanied by improvements in insulin sensitivity and beta-cell function. In conclusion, complete prolonged fasting leads to a rapid weight
loss, relatively affecting lean and fat mass similarly, while bariatric
surgery, leading to reduced calorie intake over months, results in
predominantly fat loss. Metformin induces the anorexogenic
stress-induced cytokine GDF15 and lowers glucose by increasing
glycolysis most likely in the intestine. While prolonged fasting reduces insulin sensitivity and glucose tolerance, metformin and
bariatric surgery improves it. These three studies show that different forms of interventions with the potential for weight loss have
varying effects on metabolic mechanisms involved in obesity and
T2D.
U2 - 10.21996/6de9489b-0246-4a7a-a689-03c600439409
DO - 10.21996/6de9489b-0246-4a7a-a689-03c600439409
M3 - Ph.D. thesis
PB - Syddansk Universitet. Det Sundhedsvidenskabelige Fakultet
ER -