TY - GEN
T1 - Exploring Emilin1 and TNF as Novel Strategies for Abdominal Aortic Aneurysm Progression Control
AU - Grupe, Emilie
PY - 2024/10/24
Y1 - 2024/10/24
N2 - Abdominal Aortic Aneurysm (AAA) is a serious health condition where the abdominal aorta enlarges permanently over 50% of its original diameter. Unfortunately, it often goes unnoticed as it develops withoutcausing any symptoms. However, it can lead to dangerous internal bleeding that may result in death inup to 90% of cases. Surgical intervention is advised for men with an aortic diameter of 55 mm or more.There is currently no pharmaceutical treatment available that can effectively reduce the formation of AAAor prevent its rupture, making it essential to advance therapeutic options to improve patient outcomesand life quality and reduce surgical procedures. Additionally, there is a growing need for biomarkers thatcan predict the expansion of AAA. These biomarkers will then assist doctors with additional informationwhen determining whether a patient needs surgical repair, as the decision to perform surgical repair ismainly based on the size of the AAA.The exact cause of AAA remains unknown, but it involves processes like extracellular matrix (ECM) proteolysis, oxidative stress, inflammation, and vascular smooth muscle cell (VSMC) death, which weakenthe arterial wall's flexibility and resistance. AAA is characterized by the degradation of connective tissue,especially elastin fibers, by various proteases and a decrease in elastogenic proteins like elastin microfibril interfacer–located protein 1(Emilin1). Emilin1, found abundantly in elastin-rich tissues, may facilitateelastogenesis and regulation of transforming growth factor (TGF)-β. The association between TGF-β andEmilin1 is linked to increased myogenic response and systemic blood pressure changes. Genetic population studies revealed a genetic predisposition to essential hypertension linked to polymorphisms inemilin1 and/or tgf-β genes. Recent findings identified a variant of the emilin1 gene in a family associatedwith aortic aneurysms, increased skin elasticity, arthropathy, and bilateral lower limb peripheral neuropathy. Furthermore, humans with homozygous Emilin1 loss of function variants impair elastin and collagenfiber formation, resulting in arterial tortuosity, aortic aneurysm formation, and bone fragility. Thus, Emilin1appears to be an essential mediator of normal vessel wall morphology, and its loss of function results inimpaired aortic wall integrity and aberrant TGF-β signaling. Increased TGF-β signaling could enhance themyogenic response, enhancing fibrosis and disrupting functional ECM. This interplay might contribute toan increased risk of aneurysm formation, hypertension, and cardiovascular diseases associated with elevated TGF-β levels. Therefore, we hypothesize that maintaining or increasing Emilin1 levels in VSMCsin the aortic wall diminishes the AAA expansion rate and, thereby, could Emilin1 serve as a potentialbiomarker for this condition. In Manuscripts I and II, we investigated whether enhancing Emilin1 levelsin the aorta wall may limit AAA growth by preserving normal blood pressure and stabilizing the aortic wallstructure.In Manuscript I, we cloned and generated a double-floxed inverted cassette containing the mouseEmilin1 gene tagged with EGFP, CAG-Emilin1-2A-EGFP, which facilitates Cre recombinase-dependentEGFP and Emilin1 expression. We successfully transfected the construct into HEK293T and Human aortic vascular smooth muscle cells (HAVSMC), which enabled the expression of Emilin1 and EGFP. Wecreated a transgenic Emilin1 mouse by inserting the construct into pseudo-pregnant female founder micecrossed with a smooth muscle cell-specific mouse strain SMMHC-CreERT2. Regrettably, through severalintensive and careful rounds of characterization of the new mouse strain, SMMHC-CreERT2x Emilin1-EGFP, we found no significant cell-specific increase in levels of Emilin1 nor EGFP expression in aortictissue. Thus, we could not confirm the function of overexpression of Emilin1 upon Cre recombinase activation using the animal model.In Manuscript II, we wanted to measure Emilin1 and total and mature TGF-β in the plasma samples ofAAA patients and corresponding controls. We hypothesized that decreased circulating Emilin1 and/orelevated TGF-β levels can be biomarkers for AAA progression. Emilin-1, TGF-beta, and total TGF-betain AAA patients (n=467) and controls (n=194) in the clinical “Viborg Vascular (VIVA) trial”. These investigations showed that individuals with AAAs had lower Emilin1 levels but higher total TGF-β levels andlower active TGF-β levels than controls. Plasma Emilin1 levels negatively correlated with aortic diameter,indicating that higher Emilin1 levels were associated with smaller aortic diameters. Furthermore, circulating Emilin1 levels were negatively correlated to total TGF-β determined by a Spearman's rho of -0.127(p=0.001). After adjusting for age, smoking, and calcium antagonist use, individuals in the highest Emilin1tertile demonstrated a 3 mm smaller baseline aortic diameter compared to those in the lowest tertile, asrevealed by both simple and adjusted logistic regression models (95% CI: -5.77 to -0.46, p=0.022). Usingcompeting risk with adjustment for potential confounders, higher Emilin1 levels were associated with areduced risk of AAA repair. In the AAA human transcriptome dataset (GSE57691), Emilin1 was found tobe differently expressed, where only the relative expression of Emilin1 was significantly downregulatedin small AAA tissue compared to control tissue. In conclusion, the current study suggests a correlationbetween reduced levels of Emilin1 in plasma and the development of AAAs in humans. However, thisinvestigation alone is insufficient to definitively establish a connection between Emilin1 and the regulationof TGF-β. When Emilin1 levels are low, the demand for AAA repair decreases, indicating that it may serveas a plausible biomarker for prediction. Nonetheless, further research is required to validate the predictiveefficacy of Emilin1 and TGF-β.To combat AAA development from more than one angle, we targeted the inflammatory response drivingthe formation and progression of AAAs, with a particular focus on the potent pro-inflammatory cytokine,tumor necrosis factor (TNF). TNF is released by various cell types like macrophages, T-cells, endothelialcells, and VSMCs and primarily functions as a cytokine, orchestrating inflammatory responses. Initiallysynthesized as a trimeric pro-TNF protein, it exists as a transmembrane TNF (tmTNF) form. TmTNFundergoes proteolytic cleavage mediated by TNF converting enzyme (TACE/ADAM17), releasing thesoluble form of TNF (solTNF). Both solTNF and tmTNF are biologically active, binding to their respectivereceptors, TNF receptor 1 (TNFR1) and TNF receptor 2 (TNFR2). Increased TNF levels are detected inAAA patients’ plasma and aneurysm wall samples, indicating TNF's significant role in disease development. In animal AAA models, TNF inhibition genetically or pharmacologically leads to impairedaneurysm development, reducing MMP-2 and MMP-9 expression and macrophage infiltration. In an elastase-induced AAA model, rats were treated with anti-TNF treatment and displayed diminished development of AAA, caused by reduced macrophage infiltration and inflammation while preserving the ECM.The drawback of anti-TNF drugs is that they are linked to severe adverse effects, such as increasedsusceptibility to infection and demyelinating events. It is believed that the adverse effects of TNF, suchas apoptosis and inflammation, are associated with AAA. These effects are thought to be caused bysolTNF-TNFR1 signaling. On the other hand, tmTNF-TNFR2 signaling is believed to promote vascularrepair, inhibit AAA expansion, and alleviate the adverse effects caused by solTNF-TNFR1 signaling.Therefore, selective inhibition of solTNF-TNFR1 signaling could offer a promising treatment for AAA formation, which was the focus of Manuscript III. In Manuscript III, the effectiveness of the selective solTNFinhibitor, XPro1595, and the non-selective TNF inhibitor, ETN, was assessed in mice with AAA generatedby porcine pancreatic elastase intraluminal infusions in the infrarenal region of the aorta (PPE-model).The effect of XPro1595 was also evaluated in hyperlipidaemic apolipoprotein E (ApoE-/-) mice with angiotensin II (ANGII) induction. XPro1595 exhibited a substantial reduction in AAA growth in both models,with the same pattern seen in mice treated with ETN, though non-significantly. The administration ofXPro1595 therapy improved elastin integrity scores in the aneurysm wall in the PPE AAA model. AfterTNF inhibition, TNFR1 levels decreased non-significantly, while the histological locations of infiltratingimmune cells remained unchanged. XPro1595 raised systemic TNF levels, while ETN increased systemicIL-10 levels, suggesting that the two treatments may have distinct impacts on immune response regulation. These results showed that selectively inhibiting solTNF has potential as a treatment strategy forpatients with AAA since it decreases the enlargement of aneurysms in animal models.Although TNF is commonly known for its role in immune regulation, recent studies have suggested thatincreased TNF levels are linked to increased myogenic response in resistance arteries. The myogenicresponse is the automatic contraction or relaxation of blood vessel walls in response to changes in bloodpressure to maintain stable blood flow and tissue perfusion. An aberrant myogenic response will ultimatelyresult in a prolonged increased vascular and myogenic tone, which may impair tissue perfusion and causehypertension - a significant risk factor for AAA development. Studies using non-selective TNF inhibitor,ETN, show elimination of myogenic response and reduction of blood pressure in mice. TNF mediatesmyogenic responsiveness primarily in resistance arteries; however, whether tmTNF, solTNF, or a combination of both influence this response is not described but is thought to be influenced by tmTNF signalingin VSMCs. The mechanism by which tmTNF senses transmural pressure changes remains unclear butlikely involves interaction with TNFR1 or TNFR2, leading to conformational changes and reverse signaling, ultimately initiating ERK phosphorylation and intracellular calcium increase. As we suggest selectiveinhibition of SolTNF as a potential therapeutic target of AAA formation and progression in Manuscript III,we wanted to investigate if this treatment also affected the myogenic response and potentially led to the effect of blood pressure, which could worsen the course of AAA patients. Manuscript IV aimed to investigate the immediate impacts of suppressing solTNF specifically compared with non-selective TNF therapy to understand better the main TNF form affecting vascular tone and, if so, whether solTNF affectsblood pressure regulation.Pressure myography of mesenteric arteries of both male and female C57BL/6 mice showed that the selective solTNF inhibitor, XPro1595, significantly reduced myogenic tone in both sexes. In contrast, thenon-selective TNF inhibitor, ETN, only demonstrated this effect in male mice. Though XPro1595 affectedmyogenic response, XPro1595 did not affect baseline arterial pressure in normotensive or ANGII-inducedhypertensive mice or alter established hypertension in an in vivo mouse blood pressure model. Furthermore, a two-month treatment with XPro1595 or ETN in healthy male mice did not impact the media areain the thoracic aorta or mesenteric arteries, supporting the blood pressure findings. These findings suggest that selective solTNF inhibition, such as XPro1595, may not adversely affect systemic arterial bloodpressure regulation despite its role in myogenic responsiveness in the mesenteric vascular bed. Thus,long-term use of selective SolTNF inhibitors like XPro1595 to treat inflammatory diseases should notinfluence systemic arterial blood pressure.In conclusion, these studies shed light on critical aspects of AAA pathogenesis and therapeutic interventions, emphasizing the importance of addressing the disease from multiple angles. Emilin1 emerges asa promising biomarker and therapeutic target for AAA, with TNF inhibitors like XPro1595 showing potential in reducing AAA growth without affecting blood pressure. Understanding TNF's role in regulating myogenic response provides insights into AAA development, offering avenues for targeted therapeutic approaches and improved patient outcomes.
AB - Abdominal Aortic Aneurysm (AAA) is a serious health condition where the abdominal aorta enlarges permanently over 50% of its original diameter. Unfortunately, it often goes unnoticed as it develops withoutcausing any symptoms. However, it can lead to dangerous internal bleeding that may result in death inup to 90% of cases. Surgical intervention is advised for men with an aortic diameter of 55 mm or more.There is currently no pharmaceutical treatment available that can effectively reduce the formation of AAAor prevent its rupture, making it essential to advance therapeutic options to improve patient outcomesand life quality and reduce surgical procedures. Additionally, there is a growing need for biomarkers thatcan predict the expansion of AAA. These biomarkers will then assist doctors with additional informationwhen determining whether a patient needs surgical repair, as the decision to perform surgical repair ismainly based on the size of the AAA.The exact cause of AAA remains unknown, but it involves processes like extracellular matrix (ECM) proteolysis, oxidative stress, inflammation, and vascular smooth muscle cell (VSMC) death, which weakenthe arterial wall's flexibility and resistance. AAA is characterized by the degradation of connective tissue,especially elastin fibers, by various proteases and a decrease in elastogenic proteins like elastin microfibril interfacer–located protein 1(Emilin1). Emilin1, found abundantly in elastin-rich tissues, may facilitateelastogenesis and regulation of transforming growth factor (TGF)-β. The association between TGF-β andEmilin1 is linked to increased myogenic response and systemic blood pressure changes. Genetic population studies revealed a genetic predisposition to essential hypertension linked to polymorphisms inemilin1 and/or tgf-β genes. Recent findings identified a variant of the emilin1 gene in a family associatedwith aortic aneurysms, increased skin elasticity, arthropathy, and bilateral lower limb peripheral neuropathy. Furthermore, humans with homozygous Emilin1 loss of function variants impair elastin and collagenfiber formation, resulting in arterial tortuosity, aortic aneurysm formation, and bone fragility. Thus, Emilin1appears to be an essential mediator of normal vessel wall morphology, and its loss of function results inimpaired aortic wall integrity and aberrant TGF-β signaling. Increased TGF-β signaling could enhance themyogenic response, enhancing fibrosis and disrupting functional ECM. This interplay might contribute toan increased risk of aneurysm formation, hypertension, and cardiovascular diseases associated with elevated TGF-β levels. Therefore, we hypothesize that maintaining or increasing Emilin1 levels in VSMCsin the aortic wall diminishes the AAA expansion rate and, thereby, could Emilin1 serve as a potentialbiomarker for this condition. In Manuscripts I and II, we investigated whether enhancing Emilin1 levelsin the aorta wall may limit AAA growth by preserving normal blood pressure and stabilizing the aortic wallstructure.In Manuscript I, we cloned and generated a double-floxed inverted cassette containing the mouseEmilin1 gene tagged with EGFP, CAG-Emilin1-2A-EGFP, which facilitates Cre recombinase-dependentEGFP and Emilin1 expression. We successfully transfected the construct into HEK293T and Human aortic vascular smooth muscle cells (HAVSMC), which enabled the expression of Emilin1 and EGFP. Wecreated a transgenic Emilin1 mouse by inserting the construct into pseudo-pregnant female founder micecrossed with a smooth muscle cell-specific mouse strain SMMHC-CreERT2. Regrettably, through severalintensive and careful rounds of characterization of the new mouse strain, SMMHC-CreERT2x Emilin1-EGFP, we found no significant cell-specific increase in levels of Emilin1 nor EGFP expression in aortictissue. Thus, we could not confirm the function of overexpression of Emilin1 upon Cre recombinase activation using the animal model.In Manuscript II, we wanted to measure Emilin1 and total and mature TGF-β in the plasma samples ofAAA patients and corresponding controls. We hypothesized that decreased circulating Emilin1 and/orelevated TGF-β levels can be biomarkers for AAA progression. Emilin-1, TGF-beta, and total TGF-betain AAA patients (n=467) and controls (n=194) in the clinical “Viborg Vascular (VIVA) trial”. These investigations showed that individuals with AAAs had lower Emilin1 levels but higher total TGF-β levels andlower active TGF-β levels than controls. Plasma Emilin1 levels negatively correlated with aortic diameter,indicating that higher Emilin1 levels were associated with smaller aortic diameters. Furthermore, circulating Emilin1 levels were negatively correlated to total TGF-β determined by a Spearman's rho of -0.127(p=0.001). After adjusting for age, smoking, and calcium antagonist use, individuals in the highest Emilin1tertile demonstrated a 3 mm smaller baseline aortic diameter compared to those in the lowest tertile, asrevealed by both simple and adjusted logistic regression models (95% CI: -5.77 to -0.46, p=0.022). Usingcompeting risk with adjustment for potential confounders, higher Emilin1 levels were associated with areduced risk of AAA repair. In the AAA human transcriptome dataset (GSE57691), Emilin1 was found tobe differently expressed, where only the relative expression of Emilin1 was significantly downregulatedin small AAA tissue compared to control tissue. In conclusion, the current study suggests a correlationbetween reduced levels of Emilin1 in plasma and the development of AAAs in humans. However, thisinvestigation alone is insufficient to definitively establish a connection between Emilin1 and the regulationof TGF-β. When Emilin1 levels are low, the demand for AAA repair decreases, indicating that it may serveas a plausible biomarker for prediction. Nonetheless, further research is required to validate the predictiveefficacy of Emilin1 and TGF-β.To combat AAA development from more than one angle, we targeted the inflammatory response drivingthe formation and progression of AAAs, with a particular focus on the potent pro-inflammatory cytokine,tumor necrosis factor (TNF). TNF is released by various cell types like macrophages, T-cells, endothelialcells, and VSMCs and primarily functions as a cytokine, orchestrating inflammatory responses. Initiallysynthesized as a trimeric pro-TNF protein, it exists as a transmembrane TNF (tmTNF) form. TmTNFundergoes proteolytic cleavage mediated by TNF converting enzyme (TACE/ADAM17), releasing thesoluble form of TNF (solTNF). Both solTNF and tmTNF are biologically active, binding to their respectivereceptors, TNF receptor 1 (TNFR1) and TNF receptor 2 (TNFR2). Increased TNF levels are detected inAAA patients’ plasma and aneurysm wall samples, indicating TNF's significant role in disease development. In animal AAA models, TNF inhibition genetically or pharmacologically leads to impairedaneurysm development, reducing MMP-2 and MMP-9 expression and macrophage infiltration. In an elastase-induced AAA model, rats were treated with anti-TNF treatment and displayed diminished development of AAA, caused by reduced macrophage infiltration and inflammation while preserving the ECM.The drawback of anti-TNF drugs is that they are linked to severe adverse effects, such as increasedsusceptibility to infection and demyelinating events. It is believed that the adverse effects of TNF, suchas apoptosis and inflammation, are associated with AAA. These effects are thought to be caused bysolTNF-TNFR1 signaling. On the other hand, tmTNF-TNFR2 signaling is believed to promote vascularrepair, inhibit AAA expansion, and alleviate the adverse effects caused by solTNF-TNFR1 signaling.Therefore, selective inhibition of solTNF-TNFR1 signaling could offer a promising treatment for AAA formation, which was the focus of Manuscript III. In Manuscript III, the effectiveness of the selective solTNFinhibitor, XPro1595, and the non-selective TNF inhibitor, ETN, was assessed in mice with AAA generatedby porcine pancreatic elastase intraluminal infusions in the infrarenal region of the aorta (PPE-model).The effect of XPro1595 was also evaluated in hyperlipidaemic apolipoprotein E (ApoE-/-) mice with angiotensin II (ANGII) induction. XPro1595 exhibited a substantial reduction in AAA growth in both models,with the same pattern seen in mice treated with ETN, though non-significantly. The administration ofXPro1595 therapy improved elastin integrity scores in the aneurysm wall in the PPE AAA model. AfterTNF inhibition, TNFR1 levels decreased non-significantly, while the histological locations of infiltratingimmune cells remained unchanged. XPro1595 raised systemic TNF levels, while ETN increased systemicIL-10 levels, suggesting that the two treatments may have distinct impacts on immune response regulation. These results showed that selectively inhibiting solTNF has potential as a treatment strategy forpatients with AAA since it decreases the enlargement of aneurysms in animal models.Although TNF is commonly known for its role in immune regulation, recent studies have suggested thatincreased TNF levels are linked to increased myogenic response in resistance arteries. The myogenicresponse is the automatic contraction or relaxation of blood vessel walls in response to changes in bloodpressure to maintain stable blood flow and tissue perfusion. An aberrant myogenic response will ultimatelyresult in a prolonged increased vascular and myogenic tone, which may impair tissue perfusion and causehypertension - a significant risk factor for AAA development. Studies using non-selective TNF inhibitor,ETN, show elimination of myogenic response and reduction of blood pressure in mice. TNF mediatesmyogenic responsiveness primarily in resistance arteries; however, whether tmTNF, solTNF, or a combination of both influence this response is not described but is thought to be influenced by tmTNF signalingin VSMCs. The mechanism by which tmTNF senses transmural pressure changes remains unclear butlikely involves interaction with TNFR1 or TNFR2, leading to conformational changes and reverse signaling, ultimately initiating ERK phosphorylation and intracellular calcium increase. As we suggest selectiveinhibition of SolTNF as a potential therapeutic target of AAA formation and progression in Manuscript III,we wanted to investigate if this treatment also affected the myogenic response and potentially led to the effect of blood pressure, which could worsen the course of AAA patients. Manuscript IV aimed to investigate the immediate impacts of suppressing solTNF specifically compared with non-selective TNF therapy to understand better the main TNF form affecting vascular tone and, if so, whether solTNF affectsblood pressure regulation.Pressure myography of mesenteric arteries of both male and female C57BL/6 mice showed that the selective solTNF inhibitor, XPro1595, significantly reduced myogenic tone in both sexes. In contrast, thenon-selective TNF inhibitor, ETN, only demonstrated this effect in male mice. Though XPro1595 affectedmyogenic response, XPro1595 did not affect baseline arterial pressure in normotensive or ANGII-inducedhypertensive mice or alter established hypertension in an in vivo mouse blood pressure model. Furthermore, a two-month treatment with XPro1595 or ETN in healthy male mice did not impact the media areain the thoracic aorta or mesenteric arteries, supporting the blood pressure findings. These findings suggest that selective solTNF inhibition, such as XPro1595, may not adversely affect systemic arterial bloodpressure regulation despite its role in myogenic responsiveness in the mesenteric vascular bed. Thus,long-term use of selective SolTNF inhibitors like XPro1595 to treat inflammatory diseases should notinfluence systemic arterial blood pressure.In conclusion, these studies shed light on critical aspects of AAA pathogenesis and therapeutic interventions, emphasizing the importance of addressing the disease from multiple angles. Emilin1 emerges asa promising biomarker and therapeutic target for AAA, with TNF inhibitors like XPro1595 showing potential in reducing AAA growth without affecting blood pressure. Understanding TNF's role in regulating myogenic response provides insights into AAA development, offering avenues for targeted therapeutic approaches and improved patient outcomes.
U2 - 10.21996/zf0r-q126
DO - 10.21996/zf0r-q126
M3 - Ph.D. thesis
PB - Syddansk Universitet. Det Sundhedsvidenskabelige Fakultet
ER -