TY - GEN
T1 - Epidemiology of Fractures in Type 1 and Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus
AU - Nasser, Mohamad
PY - 2024/8/27
Y1 - 2024/8/27
N2 - IntroductionDiabetes mellitus, a chronic metabolic disorder characterized by elevated blood glucose levelsdue to insulin deficiency and/or insulin resistance, is associated with an increased risk ofcomplications,(1) such as retinopathy,(2) nephropathy,(3) neuropathy(2), and fractures.(4) Forinstance, hip fractures risks were 4.9 times higher in type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1D) and 1.3times higher in type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2D) than the general population.(4)The elevated fracture risk in T1D and T2D involves multiple risk factors.(5) This includes theaccumulation of advanced glycation end products in the bone matrix, which deteriorates bonematerial properties and the utilization of glucose-lowering medications associated withhypoglycemia,(6,7) which may increase fall probability and subsequently fracture risk. Also,T1D and T2D are associated with low bone turnover markers (BTMs) levels.(8) While low bonemineral density (BMD), an independent risk factor of fractures, is common in T1D, personswith T2D have a normal to high BMD,(9) suggesting other mechanisms behind the higherfracture risk observed in T2D. Microvascular diseases (MVD) in T2D are associated with anincreased cortical porosity,(10) suggesting an alteration in bone microarchitecture that may leadto a higher fracture risk.However, the management of T1D and T2D has improved in recent years,(11) with theintroduction of insulin pens and pumps,(12) and less utilization of medications likesulfonylureas,(13) associated with elevated fracture risk due to hypoglycemia related falls.(6)Also, newer medications have been introduced such as Glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1)receptor agonists known to have neutral effect on fracture risk.(14) Besides, GLP-1 agonistsreduce body weight.(15) While obesity may increase fracture risk if caused by visceral obesityfollowed by frailty,(16,17) obesity in general is associated with a decreased fracture risk.(17)Therefore, we investigated: 1) the sex and age-group trends in fractures incidence rates (IRs) in T1D and T2D2) the site-specific trends in IRs of fracture in T1D and T2D3) the association of insulin sensitivity, β-cell function and fasting BTMs levels in glucoselowering treatment naïve persons with T2D4) the association of insulin sensitivity, β-cell function, and fracture risk in persons with T2D5) the association of MVD and fracture risk in persons with T2DMethodsIn our analyses, we used data from the Danish National Patient Registry, Danish NationalPrescription Registry, and the Danish Centre for Strategic Research in T2D cohort (DD2).We identified persons with T1D and T2D in the Danish Registries according to ICD-codes andglucose-lowering medications intake, and we identified persons with T2D diagnosis in the DD2cohort according to WHO-defined criteria. We calculated yearly IRs/10000 person years to investigate the trends of incident fractures inT1D, T2D and in those without diabetes, in Danish adults (≥ 18 years), between 1997 and 2017.We used linear regression models to analyze IRs trends over time, and pairwise t-tests tocompare IRs trends among different groups. Also, we compared the median value of fasting BTMs in glucose-lowering treatment naïvepersons with low insulin sensitivity or high insulin sensitivity. Furthermore, we ran a multiplelinear regression model to study the association between insulin sensitivity, β-cell function andBTMs. We used Cox proportional hazard regression models to study the association between β-cellfunction, insulin sensitivity, and any fracture or major osteoporotic fractures (MOF) risks,defined as clinical vertebral, hip, humerus, and forearm, in persons with T2D.Similarly, we used Cox proportional hazard regression models to study the association betweenMVD, and any fracture or MOF risks, in persons with T2D. ResultsThe trends in the IRs of fractures decreased in men with T1D and T2D, and in women withT2D. The trends remained unchanged in women with T1D. Also, the trends declined only inthe youngest group with T1D (aged 18 to 29 years), while the trends declined among all theage groups in persons with T2D.Additionally, for both T1D and T2D, the trends in the IRs of vertebral fractures increased, whilethe trends of incident hip, humerus, and forearm fractures decreased. Both ankle and footfractures remained stable in persons with T1D and T2D.Low insulin sensitivity was associated with a lower BTMs levels compared to high insulinsensitivity, in glucose-lowering treatment naïve persons with T2D.We observed no association between insulin sensitivity and any fractures or MOF risks.MVD were associated with an elevated any fracture and MOF risks. After repeating the analysisaccording to MVD subtype, only neuropathy was associated with elevated risks of any fractureand MOF.DiscussionThe decline in the incident fracture trends in men with T1D and T2D, and in women with T2Dmay be explained by the improvements in T1D and T2D management, and the increasedawareness of bone complications in T1D and T2D. The stable trend in fracture IRs observed inwomen with T1D may be in part explained by the improved life expectancy and the decreasein hormone replacement therapy use in this group.The increase in the incident vertebral fractures trends may be explained by the improveddetection and awareness of vertebral fractures in persons with T1D and T2D. The reduction inhip, humerus, and forearm fractures may indicate better T1D and T2D management andimproved fractures prevention measures.The higher BTMs observed in glucose-lowering treatment naïve persons with T2D and highinsulin sensitivity, suggests that insulin insensitivity may blunt the anabolic impact of insulin on bone. However, the absence of association between any fractures, MOF risks and insulinsensitivity suggests that insulin sensitivity may not be an independent risk of fractures.Furthermore, MVD may be considered as an independent risk factor for fractures in T2D,particularly neuropathy.
AB - IntroductionDiabetes mellitus, a chronic metabolic disorder characterized by elevated blood glucose levelsdue to insulin deficiency and/or insulin resistance, is associated with an increased risk ofcomplications,(1) such as retinopathy,(2) nephropathy,(3) neuropathy(2), and fractures.(4) Forinstance, hip fractures risks were 4.9 times higher in type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1D) and 1.3times higher in type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2D) than the general population.(4)The elevated fracture risk in T1D and T2D involves multiple risk factors.(5) This includes theaccumulation of advanced glycation end products in the bone matrix, which deteriorates bonematerial properties and the utilization of glucose-lowering medications associated withhypoglycemia,(6,7) which may increase fall probability and subsequently fracture risk. Also,T1D and T2D are associated with low bone turnover markers (BTMs) levels.(8) While low bonemineral density (BMD), an independent risk factor of fractures, is common in T1D, personswith T2D have a normal to high BMD,(9) suggesting other mechanisms behind the higherfracture risk observed in T2D. Microvascular diseases (MVD) in T2D are associated with anincreased cortical porosity,(10) suggesting an alteration in bone microarchitecture that may leadto a higher fracture risk.However, the management of T1D and T2D has improved in recent years,(11) with theintroduction of insulin pens and pumps,(12) and less utilization of medications likesulfonylureas,(13) associated with elevated fracture risk due to hypoglycemia related falls.(6)Also, newer medications have been introduced such as Glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1)receptor agonists known to have neutral effect on fracture risk.(14) Besides, GLP-1 agonistsreduce body weight.(15) While obesity may increase fracture risk if caused by visceral obesityfollowed by frailty,(16,17) obesity in general is associated with a decreased fracture risk.(17)Therefore, we investigated: 1) the sex and age-group trends in fractures incidence rates (IRs) in T1D and T2D2) the site-specific trends in IRs of fracture in T1D and T2D3) the association of insulin sensitivity, β-cell function and fasting BTMs levels in glucoselowering treatment naïve persons with T2D4) the association of insulin sensitivity, β-cell function, and fracture risk in persons with T2D5) the association of MVD and fracture risk in persons with T2DMethodsIn our analyses, we used data from the Danish National Patient Registry, Danish NationalPrescription Registry, and the Danish Centre for Strategic Research in T2D cohort (DD2).We identified persons with T1D and T2D in the Danish Registries according to ICD-codes andglucose-lowering medications intake, and we identified persons with T2D diagnosis in the DD2cohort according to WHO-defined criteria. We calculated yearly IRs/10000 person years to investigate the trends of incident fractures inT1D, T2D and in those without diabetes, in Danish adults (≥ 18 years), between 1997 and 2017.We used linear regression models to analyze IRs trends over time, and pairwise t-tests tocompare IRs trends among different groups. Also, we compared the median value of fasting BTMs in glucose-lowering treatment naïvepersons with low insulin sensitivity or high insulin sensitivity. Furthermore, we ran a multiplelinear regression model to study the association between insulin sensitivity, β-cell function andBTMs. We used Cox proportional hazard regression models to study the association between β-cellfunction, insulin sensitivity, and any fracture or major osteoporotic fractures (MOF) risks,defined as clinical vertebral, hip, humerus, and forearm, in persons with T2D.Similarly, we used Cox proportional hazard regression models to study the association betweenMVD, and any fracture or MOF risks, in persons with T2D. ResultsThe trends in the IRs of fractures decreased in men with T1D and T2D, and in women withT2D. The trends remained unchanged in women with T1D. Also, the trends declined only inthe youngest group with T1D (aged 18 to 29 years), while the trends declined among all theage groups in persons with T2D.Additionally, for both T1D and T2D, the trends in the IRs of vertebral fractures increased, whilethe trends of incident hip, humerus, and forearm fractures decreased. Both ankle and footfractures remained stable in persons with T1D and T2D.Low insulin sensitivity was associated with a lower BTMs levels compared to high insulinsensitivity, in glucose-lowering treatment naïve persons with T2D.We observed no association between insulin sensitivity and any fractures or MOF risks.MVD were associated with an elevated any fracture and MOF risks. After repeating the analysisaccording to MVD subtype, only neuropathy was associated with elevated risks of any fractureand MOF.DiscussionThe decline in the incident fracture trends in men with T1D and T2D, and in women with T2Dmay be explained by the improvements in T1D and T2D management, and the increasedawareness of bone complications in T1D and T2D. The stable trend in fracture IRs observed inwomen with T1D may be in part explained by the improved life expectancy and the decreasein hormone replacement therapy use in this group.The increase in the incident vertebral fractures trends may be explained by the improveddetection and awareness of vertebral fractures in persons with T1D and T2D. The reduction inhip, humerus, and forearm fractures may indicate better T1D and T2D management andimproved fractures prevention measures.The higher BTMs observed in glucose-lowering treatment naïve persons with T2D and highinsulin sensitivity, suggests that insulin insensitivity may blunt the anabolic impact of insulin on bone. However, the absence of association between any fractures, MOF risks and insulinsensitivity suggests that insulin sensitivity may not be an independent risk of fractures.Furthermore, MVD may be considered as an independent risk factor for fractures in T2D,particularly neuropathy.
KW - Type 1 diabetes mellitus
KW - Type 2 diabetes mellitus
KW - Fractures
KW - Insulin sensitivity
KW - Microvascular diseases
KW - Retinopathy
KW - Nephropathy
KW - Neuropathy
KW - β-cell Function
KW - Insulin
KW - Type 1 diabetes mellitus
KW - Type 2 diabetes mellitus
KW - Knoglebrud
KW - Insulinfølsomhed
KW - Mikrovaskulære sygdomme
KW - Retinopati
KW - Nefropati
KW - Neuropati
KW - β-cellefunktion
KW - Insulin
U2 - 10.21996/4n09-z451
DO - 10.21996/4n09-z451
M3 - Ph.D. thesis
PB - Syddansk Universitet. Det Sundhedsvidenskabelige Fakultet
ER -